Book Review: Yoga and Psychology
– Language, Memory and Mysticism, by Harold Coward
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'Patanjali and the Faultlines in East/West Theories of Mind' By Harold Coward,
SUNY, 2002 Coward finishes his book by reprising his exposition
of two fundamental difference between Eastern
and Western theories of mind: first around karma and the collective
unconscious, and second on the issue of the perfectibility
of mind. The latter is a question of the West’s ambivalence on the
question of enlightenment, liberation, moksha, nirvana,
or whatever non-Western term we choose to use. Coward points to the
insistence in Jung, and more recently in the work of comparative philosopher
John Hicks, that enlightenment in Eastern terms is an
impossibility – a notion where yoga ‘overextends itself.’ Coward
leaves us with the only strategy for resolving this conundrum: to
undertake the experiential practice of yoga under a qualified guru. And here lies the rub, how are
we to assess which guru is ‘qualified?’ Iyengar
claimed he would be enlightened in his next
lifetime, so we can count him out, while Rajneesh, who did claim to
be already enlightened, is utterly discredited in the eyes of most
commentators. Karen Armstrong usefully points out that our dilemma
is due to the different cultural development of religion in East and
West – the West is a tradition of scripture, while the East is a tradition
of teacher or guru. The authority of scripture in the West rests on
its putative origins in the mind of ‘God’ (a claim that alienates
faith communities from secular culture like almost no other). The
fate of the guru in the West on the other hand has been a disaster,
as books like Storr’s Feet of Clay, Feuerstein’s Holy Madness, and Marianna Caplan’s Half Way up
the Mountain testify. It is a personal anguish for me that Rajneesh
is the touchstone for guru malpractice in many such works, not that
I can defend many of his more outrageous actions. But his brilliant
translation and commentary on the Yoga
Sutras, coupled with my deeply Eastern spiritual instincts and
personal experience of samadhi, have given
me a perspective that makes me sceptical to Western interpretations.
Feuerstein to some degree but Coward in particular raises the question
for me, to what extent are they reading Western monotheist assumptions
into the Yoga Sutras? Coward’s exposition is divided into two parts, the
first dealing with the relationship between the yoga tradition and
language, and the second dealing with yoga and Western psychology,
principally the transpersonal. Coward provides in masterly fashion
a route into the obscurity of Patanjali via a number of very Western contemporary preoccupations,
principally the role of language in constructing experience, but also
including transpersonal psychology and recent advances in neurology.
The Yoga Sutras (dated approximately
200 CE) are difficult even for the spiritually literate Westerner
because of three factors: they are aphoristic (pithy statements like
for example in Pascal’s Pensées);
they are further condensed because of the Sanskrit habit of using
only nouns; and because they are written on the basis of cultural
assumptions that are profoundly different to our own. The cultural
gap involves two factors: firstly, as Armstrong has identified, a
fundamentally different attitude to scripture, and secondly the necessity
to take into account the secularisation of Western culture.
Coward’s strategy is to take locate the potential common ground, work
out from there, and leave us with the challenges that the Yoga tradition
poses to the West. The common ground as Coward sees it includes a possible
identification of the Hindu Isvara in the Yoga Sutras with the Western ‘God,’ the role
of language, and the relationship between Western theories of memory
and yogic notions of karma. Overall, the framework which Coward adopts
as his starting point is Abrahamic language-centred
monotheism, a natural Western starting point, but for me, quite alien.
Since my spiritual awakening in India I have naturally explored the
great spiritual literature of the East, but, much more difficult was
to learn the Western tradition. Hence I am quickly alerted to what
I think is a number of ‘awkward fits’ when reading one tradition in
terms of the other. In particular, the emphasis that Coward places
on a few short statements in the Yoga
Sutras, which list ‘surrender to Isvara’ as a valid technique for liberation. Rajneesh was adamant
in his commentaries that this was merely included by Patanjali for the sake of completeness, and that they represent
the devotional path (bhakti yoga), not at all the subject of his exposition. Coward
has quite the right instinct to see it as the common ground with Christian
monotheism, but his emphasis on it rather imposes on the original
I think. Nevertheless, it allows for the second part of his strategy,
that is to focus on language. Only by standing outside of the
Abrahamic monotheism of the West is it possible to see that
the emphasis on the ‘Word’ and language is a peculiarity of that tradition
and not at all a universal. However Coward is in good company with
leading British transpersonal scholar, Brian Lancaster, whose exposition
of ‘language mysticism’ draws on his own Judaic roots, and which emphasis
on language is core to both Western religion and philosophy. Coward
finds support for the language analysis from the Hindu philosopher
of language and poet, Bhartrhari, while Lancaster draws from the Abhidhamma texts
of the Buddhist Pali canon. My own spiritual experiences and my own reading of
the Indian texts, including the Pali canon,
lead me to think that the cluster of notions around monotheism and
language, when laid over the Yoga
Sutras, obscure rather than reveal. However, Coward’s arguments,
drawing on the work of Bhartrhari, are fascinating. Is he right to assert, in line
with the Western tradition, that language has the power to ‘realize
release?’ In particular, when this language has the scriptural authority
of origins in Iswara? Or is this
an imposition of the Western notion of the revealed ‘Word of God,’
onto the Eastern tradition that Armstrong suggests is more oriented
around the guru and personal experience than scripture and textual
authority? Coward tackles the difficult Eastern notion of karma
in terms of Western psychology and neurology of memory, providing
further ground for a Western reader to approach the alien world of
the Yoga Sutras. Again, from personal experience of the workings of karma,
I am hesitant about this approach. Karma is much more than the neutral
accumulation of memory traces that Coward suggests, and the strategy
he uses of evidence from neurology is problematic for me. On the one
hand, by drawing on contemporary neuroscience, we can appeal against
the reductionist secular prejudice against
the spiritual. On the other hand it gives the sceptic ammunition too;
in this case to ask how on earth neuronal pathways could be ‘grooved’
by sense experience from previous lives. The last sections of Coward’s stimulating book explore how Jung – perhaps emblematic of the Western mind – was sceptical that ‘liberation,’ as the goal of the Yoga Sutras, was possible at all. Jung memorably described notions of Eastern enlightenment or nirvana as an ‘amputation,’ believing that pursuing the goal of yoga and similar disciplines would lead to a state of total unconsciousness. Coward explores this issue with reference to later transpersonal theorists, though he might usefully have called on Wilber’s assessment of Jung as victim of the ‘elevationist fallacy,’ whereby Jung equated the unconscious with the highest states of mind, such as described by Patanjali. Coward tells us that Jung held yoga to be in error, effectively holding to the Western view that only ‘God’ was perfect, and that the human mind was imperfectable. With the Western system of the authority of revealed scripture, no testimony from its own mystics has been admissible. In the East on the other hand the guru manifests the ultimate, scripture acting more as a support. As we mentioned at the outset, Coward leaves us with this central issue regarding the East / West divide. Having taken us through the Yoga Sutras with rather Western eyes, he acknowledges that mere scholarship cannot resolve the issues – only study under a guru can do that. And I have to acknowledge that while it worked for me, it is a step that few are prepared to take, for good reasons.
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